UNDERSTANDING
RELIGIONS Series Edited by
Maximillien de Lafayette
UNDERSTANDING
RELIGIONS Series Edited by
Maximillien de Lafayette
JUDAISM
CUSTOMS
A
family time
Some of the family will have been to synagogue before the Sabbath meal, and it's likely that the whole family will go on Saturday.
BELIEFS
Judaism is the Faith of a Community
Jews also
feel part of a global community with a close bond Jewish people all
over the world. A lot of Jewish religious life is based around the
home and family activities.
Almost everything a Jewish person does can become an act of worship. Because Jews have made a bargain with God to keep his laws, keeping that bargain and doing things in the way that pleases God is an act of worship. And Jews don't only seek to obey the letter of the law—the particular details of each of the Jewish laws—but the spirit of it, too. A religious Jew tries to bring holiness into everything they do, by doing it as an act that praises God, and honors everything God has done. For such a person the whole of their life becomes an act of worship. Being part of a community that follows particular customs and rules helps keep a group of people together, and it’s noticeable that the Jewish groups that have been most successful at avoiding assimilation are those that obey the rules most strictly—sometimes called ultra-orthodox Jews.
It's what you do that counts...
The Jewish View of God
A summary of what Jews believe about God
The Jews brought new ideas about
God
Before Judaism, people believed in lots of gods, and those gods behaved no better than human beings with supernatural powers. The Jews found themselves with a God who was ethical and good. But how do Jews know this about
God?
The best evidence for what God is
like comes from what the Bible says, and from particular individual’s
experiences of God.
But after getting the 10 commandments Moses wants to see God, so that he can know what he is really like. God says no…
Then the LORD said,
Two sides of God
A great deal of Jewish study deals with the creative power of two apparently incompatible ideas of God. TRADITIONS
B'nai Mitzvah: Under Jewish law children are not responsible for their actions until they reach the age of adulthood, which in Jewish tradition is 12 for girls and 13 for boys. When a child reaches the age of maturity, they are said to have become Bar Mitzvah (son of the commandment), or Bat Mitzvah (daughter of the commandment), and are regarded as adults under Jewish law. The plural for this term is B'nai Mitzvah. Bar Mitzvah: B'nai Mitzvah ceremonies are a fairly new tradition and are not mentioned in the Talmud. The B'nai Mitzvah do not fulfil any commandment and the child automatically becomes a Bar Mitzvah upon reaching the age of obligation. The ceremony, which often takes place on the first available Shabbat after the birthday, is a time for the community to celebrate the coming of age for the young adult. During the religious service, the Bar Mitzvah is called up to read the Torah and recite a blessing over the weekly reading. He is usually asked to make a speech, which often begins "Today I am a man". His father will then recite a blessing thanking God for removing the burden for being responsible for his son's actions. The service is then usually followed by a celebratory meal and party with family, friends and members of the community. Bat Mitzvah: Over the past century, the celebration of the Bat Mitzvah has become widespread in all Jewish traditions, but the ceremonies do differ in some important details. In Orthodox and Chasidic traditions, women are not usually permitted to read from the Torah or lead prayer services, so Bat Mitzvahs are usually little more than parties. Orthodox girls may lecture on a Jewish topic to mark their adulthood, learn a book or recite verses from other texts, such as the Psalms. The Bat Mitvah is taught how to maintain a ritually correct home and is instructed in the traditional rules of menstrual purity. In other Jewish traditions girls do exactly the same as boys. Some groups celebrate Bat Mitzvah at age 13. SUBDIVISIONS OF JUDAISM
Humanistic Judaism Basic Principles
So Humanistic Jews regard Judaism as an ethnic culture that was created by the Jewish people and shaped by Jewish experience. It did not fall from heaven, and no supernatural being had anything to do with it. Rabbi Sherwin Wine founded the first Humanistic Jewish congregation in 1963, and helped establish the Society for Humanistic Judaism in 1969. Ethical and Spiritual: Humanistic Jews believe that the human moral code comes from people and from the world in which they live. Humanistic Jews find "spiritual satisfaction" in secular celebrations of Jewish holidays, study and discussion of Jewish and broader human issues, and action for social justice. A Positive World View: Although they reject God and the supernatural, Humanistic Jews put a very high value on the place of Hebrew language, Jewish history, culture and the ethics and values of Judaism in their lives. The quotation below gives a flavor of their thinking:
Liberal Judaism Liberal Judaism, as the name suggests, is a progressive form of Judaism that aims to bring Judaism and modernity together. To use the movement's own words:
Liberal Jews apply Judaism's religious and cultural tradition in the framework of modern thinking and morality. They seek to live according to the prophetic ideal - to do justice, love kindness and to walk humbly with God. In beliefs and practice Liberal Judaism is more radical than UK Reform Judaism, and has much in common with American Reform Judaism. The movement has a strong intellectual tradition, and believes that Jewish texts should be reinterpreted in the light of modern scholarship and Jewish laws reassessed by their practical suitability to contemporary conditions. So, for example, there is no obligation to obey Jewish dietary laws, but one can do so if it helps one's internal feeling of 'Jewishness' to do so. This is typical of the Liberal belief that each individual should be encouraged to make their own decisions within the Jewish framework (and taking a questioning attitude to that framework), as opposed to the strict obedience to law that characterizes Orthodoxy. Liberal Judaism is non-authoritarian and the congregations that make up the movement are self-governing. In Britain, it is organized by an association of 30 autonomous synagogues, comprising what was formerly known as 'The Union of Liberal and Progressive Synagogues' and now simply 'Liberal Judaism'. The organization is part of the World Union for Progressive Judaism, which has over 1,500,000 members and is the largest grouping of Jews in the world. Liberal rabbis are trained at the Leo Baeck College - Centre for Jewish Education, the main rabbinic seminary for progressive Rabbis. Liberal Judaism's beliefs God: Liberal Jews see God as "One and indivisible, transcendent and immanent Creator and sustainer of the universe, Source of the Moral Law, a God of Justice and mercy who demands that human beings shall practice justice and mercy in their dealings with one another". Humanity: Liberal Jews affirm the traditional view of humanity as that which is "created in the Divine Image, endowed with free will capable of sublime goodness but also of terrible evil, mortal yet with a sense of eternity, able to enter into a direct personal relationship with their Creator, and to restore that relationship when it is broken, through repentance (t'shuvah)". The Bible and holy books: Liberal Jews don't believe that the Torah was written by God on tablets of stone and given to Moses. They believe it was written by human beings and should be responded to as such. Many Liberal Jews do acknowledge that much of the Torah was divinely inspired. Liberal Jews regard the biblical writers as fallible human beings, anchored in the customs and societies of their time and place. They accept that while the Torah contains much that is spiritual and inspiring, it also contains "plenty that is flawed, petty, and rooted in ancient politics and culture. So, for example, Liberal Jews don't accept that God was responsible for some of the ancient concepts and laws, such as the stoning to death of a rebellious son or the permanent ostracism from the community of Israel of the members of ancient Canaanite tribes. They believe that these were human laws that were part of the culture and moralities of their time and that have no application today. This re-evaluation of scripture doesn't devalue the Torah. Liberal Jews regard the Torah, together with Mishnah, Talmud and Midrash, as an inexhaustible source of wisdom, guidance and inspiration. However, they believe that the Torah and other works should be interpreted in the context of the present day, rather than literally. The Messiah and the afterlife: Most Liberal Jews reject the idea of a personal Messiah at whose coming all the righteous dead would arise and live in unadulterated bliss. They reject the idea of physical resurrection and have revised the Amidah prayer so that instead of the traditional mechayyeh ha-metim (who brings the dead to life) it reads mechayyeh ha-kol (who gives life to all). There is no consensus on an afterlife. Gender issues Women may participate fully in synagogue life:
The movement's prayer book, Siddur Lev Chadash, uses gender-inclusive language in its translations. So, for example, masculine names for God, such as "Lord" and "King", are replaced by words such as "Eternal One" and "Sovereign", and the Matriarchs are mentioned in conjunction with the Patriarchs. Women are encouraged to study Judaism in-depth, so that they are properly equipped to make informed decisions about their religious life. Liberal Judaism rejects the traditional law of matrilineality, which teaches that a child must have a Jewish mother to be born Jewish. It accepts that children of mixed marriages should be treated alike, regardless of whether the mother or the father is the Jewish parent, and judged solely according to their upbringing. Children also receive equal treatment, with girls and boys having equal parts in religious rituals and equal status in religious education. Both girls and boys can have a service of baby naming in the synagogue, in which both mother and father participate fully. Girls can go through the Bat-Mitzvah ("Daughter of Duty") ceremony, which is equivalent to the traditional male Bar-Mitzvah when they're 13. This innovation is now available across most Jewish denominations. At the ages of 15 and 16 Liberal Jews undergo the unique ceremony of Kabbalat Torah ("Acceptance of Torah" or "Confirmation"). Here the service and Torah reading are equally divided between the boys and girls of the graduating class. Men and women are accorded completely equal status in Liberal Jewish marriage law and ritual. Liberal Judaism objects to the Orthodox 'bill of divorce' by which the husband 'sends away' the wife. Liberal Jews consider this law to be one-sided.
Orthodox Judaism The contemporary Jewish scene: The contemporary Jewish scene in the UK still finds the community overwhelmingly Orthodox in affiliation. The last four decades have witnessed an enormous religious renaissance with several organizations like Lubavitch, Aish, The Jewish Learning Exchange (JLE) and Project SEED spearheading the change. Aish runs packed weekly lectures in it's centers in North London and annually takes up to 500 young people for three week study programs to Israel, Australia or New York. They recently had the success of their programs endorsed by MORI which reported,
Orthodox institutions from the advanced Talmudic colleges and Girls Seminaries of Gateshead upon Tyne (the surprising location of the Orthodox Oxbridge of Europe) are bursting at the seams. Orthodoxy is now reintroducing Jews from the mainstream Orthodox camp as well as individuals from non-Orthodox backgrounds to a more committed and knowledge-based involvement with their religion. Dissent and Divorce:
Reaching back to the Second Temple, there were movements like
Sadducees, Boethusians and others that rejected and redefined existing
Jewish beliefs. In the Eighteenth and Nineteenth centuries, the
world's best minds struggled to emerge from the dogmas of the dark
ages and the "Enlightenment thinkers" began to change European
society. The Bible was seen increasingly seen as myth and fairy tale.
At the same time the Ghetto doors had been burst open by the French
revolution and Jews for the first time saw the opportunity of merge
into mainstream society. In Germany in particular this opportunity
came to be endorsed and accelerated by a redefinition of existing core
Jewish beliefs, this was known as the Reform movement. The authority
of the Talmud was denied, and it's legal conclusions rejected.
Synagogues became patterned on Churches. The first such Synagogue
opened in Seesen in 1810. An organ and mixed choir (both alien to
Synagogue ritual) were introduced, along with German Sermons, German
Songs, German prayers and ecclesiastical costume. Halachah as we have
seen is elastic and it is legitimate to stretch it to meet the
challenges thrown up by any given era. It goes without saying, there
comes a point where the elastic breaks. Orthodox Judaism sees the
changes made by Reform in the UK and elsewhere as having past that
point. Today, the Reform process has continued to edit and alter many
other areas. These range from redefining who can be considered a Jew,
to omitting certain passages from the public reading of the Torah,
because they fail the test of political correctness. The Reform
movement is seen by Orthodox Judaism as long since having moved from a
position of dissent to one of divorce. Like most divorces, it can only
be hoped that the ex-couples can move on to make their own ways
amicably; with one of the partners, perhaps more than a little sad
that the other decided to leave. Contributed by Rabbi Y. Rubenstein Reconstructionist Judaism
Reconstructionist Judaism is an American Jewish denomination founded in the last century that seeks to unite Jewish history, tradition, culture and belief with modern scientific knowledge and the way people live today. Reconstructionism is particularly suited to meet the needs of people with a scientific turn of mind as well as a strong spiritual sense since it takes the supernatural elements out of religion. It teaches that the Jewish religion was created by the Jewish people and was not a revelation from God. Most reconstructionists reject the idea of any such supernatural being. They also reject divine revelation and the doctrine of the Jews being God's "chosen people". But reconstructionism is not secular. Jewish spiritual insights and religious teachings provide important sources of meaning and purpose and religion is seen as the heart of the Jewish search for meaning in life. In recent years reconstructionism has become more responsive to the part played by emotion and the heart in religion. It now accepts a wide range of individual spiritual practices and acknowledges the value of mysticism. Reconstructionism is not exclusive; it believes that the Jewish people should preserve their 'Jewishness' while at the same time being fully integrated citizens of the secular culture of which they are also part. Reconstructionism is always changing to meet a changing world. The past is important, but reconstructionists don't allow religious laws and traditions to prevent them changing things in order to create a Judaism that is relevant to modern times. As they put it "the past has a vote, not a veto". The movement is highly community-oriented. This is important in two ways: first that the primary way of expressing oneself as a Jew is to live as a member of the Jewish people, and second that the Jewish religion grows out of (and in) the collective life of the Jewish people. Reconstructionism takes an open and creative approach towards ways of expressing religion. This allows reconstructionist communities to develop new rituals and ceremonies that help their members experience and celebrate their Judaism. Although reconstructionist thought has been highly influential, it represents what remains a very small denomination.
Basic beliefs of Reconstructionist Judaism
Reconstructionist Judaism and God: Reconstructionist concepts of God are radically different from those of most Jews, or indeed most people who say they "believe in God". Reconstructionists reject the idea of a God who can break the laws of nature and act like a person, or who chose the Jewish People and gave them the Torah. Reconstructionists say that a supernatural God is incompatible with current scientific knowledge about the universe. In fact, they don't think God is a being at all. But they do still say that God exists. They think that God can be found in human experiences and the things of this world. Most Reconstructionists see God not as a being, but as a power, process or force that works through nature and human beings. This approach to God allows Jewish spirituality and self-understanding to keep the power, structure and poetic truths of the Hebrew Bible, prayer books and other writings without accepting them as literally true. Many people think these ideas are really atheism wearing a cloak of "God-speak" though Reconstructionists deny this and feel that their branch of Judaism can still be called Judaism.
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God and the supernatural: Although some Reconstructionists are comfortable with the idea of a personal and supernatural being, most don't think God is a being at all. They say:
God as a force: Reconstructionists may see God as a force in the world, or more specifically as a powerful force for goodness and holiness in the universe that human beings can choose to work with.
God as a moral symbol: For some reconstructionists, God is "a symbol that expresses the highest ideals for which men strive". Some writers describe God as a moral template that provides humanity with their moral framework for this world. Moral goodness involves taking positive action to improve oneself and the world in line with the ideals expressed in God as a symbol.
Reform Judaism
Leading scholars did effect some modifications but there was a general reticence to reverse rulings made by rabbis of previous centuries, who were considered to be more pious than modern ones. The result was an increasing stultification within the faith, and the gulf between Jewish Law and everyday reality widened. Conformity became the hallmark of religious authenticity. This did not stop Jewish life from continuing. For centuries Jews were forcibly separated from wider society by discriminatory legislation and this had the effect of keeping them cocooned in their own world and unaffected by changing trends. The problem only became a crisis in the nineteenth century when the social and legal barriers around them came down, and Jews were catapulted into modern society. For some, the sudden transition was too overwhelming, and it led to them abandoning Judaism. Others reacted by retreating back into their faith and deliberately shunning any contact with life outside. Another group sought to inhabit both worlds, loyal to their tradition but also part of modernity. That was the creation of Reform Judaism. Contributed By Rabbi R. Roman
BUDDHISM Buddhist tradition has developed many
different customs and practices in different parts of the world. However,
two customs are basic to all traditions: The exchange of gifts
Laos Luang Prabang Monks
Detail of the sand mandala created in Manchester Town Hall by monks of the Drepung Loseling Monastery.
Since in many cases, acceptance as a monk could not be made before the age of 20, the two rites could be separated by many years. Ordination is an important ceremony in all traditions. In the Theravada, for example, ordination means becoming a monk. To become a Theravadin monk a postulant shaves his head and beard and adopts the yellow robes of the monk. Various vows are exchanged, including the repetition of the Ten Precepts. Then the postulant is questioned about past behavior and their suitability for the position. If satisfied, the officiating abbot admits the postulant.
Buddhist monks in parade. Beliefs
The Core of Buddhist teaching
Women carry gifts in a procession at a Wesak celebration
A Different Way of Faith
Buddha temple statue, Kathmandu, Nepal. The Bare Essentials of Buddhism
Theravada Buddhism Theravada Buddhism is strongest in Sri Lanka, Cambodia, Thailand, Laos and Burma (Myanmar). It is sometimes called "Southern Buddhism". The name means the doctrine of the elders - the elders being the senior Buddhist monks. This school of Buddhism believes that it has remained closest to the original teachings of the Buddha. However, it does not over-emphasize the status of these teachings in a fundamentalist way - they are seen as tools to help people understand the truth, and not as having merit of their own. Theravada beliefs
Theravada life: Theravada Buddhism emphasizes attaining self-liberation through one's own efforts. Meditation and concentration are vital elements of the way to enlightenment. The ideal road is to dedicate oneself to full-time monastic life. The follower is expected to "abstain from all kinds of evil, to accumulate all that is good and to purify their mind". Meditation is one of the main tools by which a Theravada Buddhist transforms themselves, and so a monk spends a great deal of time in meditation. When a person achieves liberation they are called a 'worthy person' - an Arhat or Arahat. Despite the monastic emphasis, Theravada Buddhism has a substantial role and place for lay followers. Monastic life: Most Theravada monks live as part of monastic communities. Some join as young as seven, but one can join at any age. A novice is called a samanera and a full monk is called a bikkhu. The monastic community as a whole is called the sangha. Monks (and nuns) undertake the training of the monastic order (the Vinaya) which consist of 227 rules (more for nuns). Within these rules or precepts are five which are undertaken by all those trying to adhere to a Buddhist way of life. The Five Precepts are to undertake the rule of training to:
Of particular interest is the fact that Theravadan monks and nuns are not permitted to eat after midday or handle money. Mahayana Buddhism Mahayana Buddhism is strongest in Tibet, China, Taiwan, Japan, Korea, and Mongolia. Mahayana Buddhism is not a single group but a collection of Buddhist traditions: Zen Buddhism, Pure Land Buddhism, and Tibetan Buddhism are all forms of Mahayana Buddhism. Theravada and Mahayana are both rooted in the basic teachings of the historical Buddha, and both emphasize the individual search for liberation from the cycle of samsara (birth, death, rebirth...). The methods or practices for doing that, however, can be very different. The Bodhisattva: Mahayana talks a great deal about the bodhisattva (the 'enlightenment being') as being the ideal way for a Buddhist to live. Anyone can embark on the bodhisattva path. This is a way of life, a way of selflessness; it is a deep wish for all beings, no matter who they are, to be liberated from suffering. The Boddhisattva Vow
The Trikaya - the three bodies of Buddha: Mahayana Buddhism says that there are three aspects of Buddhahood, which it describes by regarding Buddha as having three bodies (trikaya):
Pure Land Buddhism Pure Land Buddhism offers a way to enlightenment for people who can't handle the subtleties of meditation, endure long rituals, or just live especially good lives. The essential practice in Pure Land Buddhism is the chanting of the name of Amitabha Buddha with total concentration, trusting that one will be reborn in the Pure Land, a place where it is much easier for a being to work towards enlightenment. Pure Land Buddhism adds mystical elements to the basic Buddhist teachings which make those teachings easier (and more comforting) to work with. These elements include faith and trust and a personal relationship with Amitabha Buddha, who is regarded by Pure Land Buddhists as a sort of saviour; and belief in the Pure Land, a place which provides a stepping stone towards enlightenment and liberation. Pure Land Buddhism is particularly popular in China and Japan. History: Pure Land Buddhism as a school of Buddhist thinking began in India around the 2nd century BCE. It spread to China where there was a strong cult of Amitabha by the 2nd century CE, and then spread to Japan around the 6th century CE. Pure Land Buddhism received a major boost to its popularity in the 12th century with the simplifications made by Honen. A century later Shinran (1173-1262), a disciple of Honen, brought a new understanding of the Pure Land ideas, and this became the foundation of the Shin (true) sect. Pure Land Buddhism took off in Japan when the monk Honen (1133-1212) simplified the teachings and practices of the sect so that anyone could cope with them. He eliminated the intellectual difficulties and complex meditation practices used by other schools of Buddhism. Honen taught that rebirth in the Pure Land was certain for anyone who recited the name with complete trust and sincerity. Honen said that all that was needed was...
The result was a form of Buddhism accessible to anyone, even if they were illiterate or stupid. Honen didn't simplify Buddhism through a patronizing attitude to inferior people. He believed that most people, and he included himself, could not achieve liberation through any of their own activities. The only way to achieve buddhahood was through the help of Amitabha. The Shin Sect: A century after Honan, one of his disciples Shinran (1173-1262) brought a new understanding of the Pure Land ideas. Shinran taught that what truly mattered was not the chanting of the name but faith. Chanting on its own had no value at all. Those who follow the Shin school say that liberation is the consequence of a person achieving genuine faith in Amitabha Buddha and his vow to save all beings who trusted in him. Amitabha: The Pure Land sect emphasizes the important role played in liberation by Amitabha (which means Immeasurable Light) who is also called Amitayus (which means Immeasurable Life). People who sincerely call on Amitabha for help will be reborn in Sukhavati - The Pure Land or The Western Paradise - where there are no distractions and where they can continue to work towards liberation under the most favorable conditions. The nature of Amitabha is not entirely clear. Encyclopedia Britannica describes him as "the great savior deity worshiped principally by members of the Pure Land sect in Japan." Another writer says "Amitabha is neither a God who punishes and rewards, gives mercy or imposes tests, nor a divinity that we can petition or beg for special favors". The mystical view of Amitabha regards him as an eternal Buddha, and believes that he manifested himself in human history as Gautama, or "The Buddha". Amitabha translates as "Amito-fo" in Chinese and "Amida" in Japanese. Tibetan Buddhism Tibetan Buddhism is a religion in exile, forced from its homeland when Tibet was conquered by the Chinese. At one time it was thought that 1 in 6 Tibetan men were Buddhist monks. The best known face of Tibetan Buddhism is the Dalai Lama, who has lived in exile in India since he fled Chinese occupation of his country in 1959. Tibetan Buddhism combines the essential teachings of Mahayana Buddhism with Tantric and Shamanic, and material from an ancient Tibetan religion called Bon. Although Tibetan Buddhism is often thought to be identical with Vajrayana Buddhism, they are not identical - Vajrayana is taught in Tibetan Buddhism together with the other vehicles. History: Buddhism became a major presence in Tibet towards the end of the 8th century CE. It was brought from India at the invitation of the Tibetan king, Trisong Detsen, who invited two Buddhist masters to Tibet and had important Buddhist texts translated into Tibetan. First to come was Shantarakshita, abbot of Nalanda in India, who built the first monastery in Tibet. He was followed by Padmasambhava, who came to use his wisdom and power to overcome "spiritual" forces that were stopping work on the new monastery. Groups within Tibetan Buddhism
Special features of Tibetan Buddhism
Tibetan Buddhist practice features a number of rituals, and spiritual practices such as the use of mantras and yogic techniques. Supernatural beings are prominent in Tibetan Buddhism. Buddhas and bodhisattvas abound, gods and spirits taken from earlier Tibetan religions continue to be taken seriously. Bodhisattvas are portrayed as both benevolent godlike figures and wrathful deities. This metaphysical context has allowed Tibetan Buddhism to develop a strong artistic tradition, and paintings and other graphics are used as aids to understanding at all levels of society. Visual aids to understanding are very common in Tibetan Buddhism - pictures, structures of various sorts and public prayer wheels and flags provide an ever-present reminder of the spiritual domain in the physical world. Tibetan Buddhism is strong in both monastic communities and among lay people. The lay version has a strong emphasis on outwardly religious activities rather than the inner spiritual life: there is much ritual practice at temples, pilgrimage is popular - often including many prostrations, and prayers are repeated over and over - with the use of personal or public prayer wheels and flags. There are many festivals, and funerals are very important ceremonies. Lay people provide physical support to the monasteries as well as relying on the monks to organize the rituals. Zen Zen Buddhism is a mixture of Indian Mahayana Buddhism and Taoism. It began in China, spread to Korea and Japan, and became very popular in the West from the mid 20th century. The essence of Zen is attempting to understand the meaning of life directly, without being misled by logical thought, or language. Zen techniques are compatible with other faiths and are often used, for example, by Christians seeking a mystical understanding of their faith. Zen often seems paradoxical - it requires an intense discipline which, when practiced properly, results in total spontaneity and ultimate freedom. This natural spontaneity should not be confused with impulsiveness. "Zen" - the word: "Zen" is the way the Chinese word "Ch'an" is pronounced in Japan. "Ch'an" is the Chinese pronunciation of the Sanskrit word "Dhyana", which means (more or less) meditation. Zen - the essence and the difficulty: Christmas Humphreys, one of the leading pioneers in the history of Buddhism in Britain, wrote that "Zen is a subject extremely easy to misunderstand." He was right. Zen is something a person does. It's not a concept that can be described in words. Despite that, we'll use words on this site to help you get some idea of what Zen is about. But always remember, Zen does not depend on words - you have to experience it in order to "understand" it. Enlightenment is inside: The essence of Zen Buddhism is that all human beings are Buddha, and that all they have to do is to discover that truth for themselves.
You who are reading this now are Buddha. Just find out the truth of your own true nature...Zen sends us looking inside us for enlightenment. There's no need to search outside ourselves for the answers; we can find the answers in the same place that we found the questions. Human beings can't learn this truth by philosophizing or rational thought, nor by studying scriptures, taking part in worship rites and rituals or many of the other things that people think religious people do. The first step is to control our minds through meditation and other techniques that involve mind and body; to give up logical thinking and avoid getting trapped in a spider's web of words. History: Zen Buddhism was brought to China by the Indian monk Bodhidharma in the 6th century CE. It was called Ch'an in China. Zen's golden age began with the Sixth Patriarch, Hui-neng (638-713), and ended with the persecution of Buddhism in China in the middle of the 9th century CE. Most of those we think of today as the great Zen masters came from this period. Zen Buddhism survived the persecution though it was never the same again in China. Zen spread to Korea in the 7th century CE and to Japan in the 12th century CE. Zen Buddhism was popularized in the West by the Japanese scholar Daisetz Teitaro Suzuki (1870 - 1966); although it was found in the West before that. Zen in its own words
Clues to the meaning of Zen Because Zen is so hard to explain we're going to offer you a series of paragraphs that may help you get an idea of it:
The Nichiren Buddhism Tradition Nichiren Buddhism is a Japanese Buddhist movement in the Mahayana tradition. It is also popular in the West and has a fast growing membership in Europe. Nichiren Buddhism differs from other schools of Buddhism in focusing on this world, and in its view that it is the only correct tradition. It also emphasizes the importance of individuals taking responsibility for improving themselves. Although it can be seen as a highly self-focused religion, followers of Nichiren Buddhism believe that individual empowerment and inner transformation contribute, in turn, to a better and more peaceful world. The singer Tina Turner is one of its most high profile followers. In the 1993 movie What's love got to do with it, an autobiographical film about Turner's rise to stardom and her relationship with her abusive husband, she chanted the Buddhist Nam Myoho Renge Kyo mantra. Ten principles: Nichiren Buddhists believe in ten basic principles as fundamental to human make-up. These are:
Early History: Nichiren Buddhism began in medieval Japan. It has its roots in the teachings of Nichiren Daishonin (1222-1282), a 13th century Japanese monk who tried to reform Buddhism and Japanese society. In many ways he was a Buddhist Martin Luther who lived centuries before the great Protestant reformer. His teaching was based on the Mahayana sutra (scripture) known as the Lotus Sutra. The book of 28 chapters of poems and stories is the main scripture of Nichiren Buddhism. The Lotus Sutra was probably compiled over 200 years and completed around 50-150 CE. Nichiren came to regard the Lotus Sutra as a supremely authoritative scripture. He taught that it should always be read and applied to the contemporary context -- to the time and place in which the reader happened to be. The Lotus Sutra has influenced Japanese Buddhism in general, and not just Nichiren Buddhism. Seeking enlightenment: Nichiren came to believe that he was living in a degraded age, an age of mappo (very similar to the English term " end times") where Buddha's teachings were misinterpreted and as a consequence many bad things were happening.
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Nichiren followed the Lotus Sutra in his teaching that all living beings could attain enlightenment on earth and could do this through chanting and 'human revolution'. Nichiren emphasized the Lotus Sutra to the extent that he taught that it was the only way that could lead to true Buddhahood, and create a truly good world. He taught that other Buddhist practices no longer provided a road to enlightenment, and that it was the neglect of the Lotus Sutra that was responsible for the evils of his time; including such things as earthquakes. Nichiren was not just a scripture scholar, he was an activist. Having worked out what was wrong with contemporary Buddhism he did something about it. He engaged in shakubuku. This Japanese word means "to break and subdue". Exile and execution: Nichiren not only embarked on missionary work for his own cause, but also on energetic disparagement of rival Buddhist views, to the extent of warning that those who followed them were going to hell. This made him extremely unpopular with other Buddhist teachers. Nichiren also rebuked the rulers of Japan for allowing rival Buddhist schools of thought to promote "erroneous teaching". The job of the government, he said, was to promote the Lotus Sutra and look after the monks who taught it. Unless the government did this, Nichiren and his monks were duty bound to oppose the rulers of Japan. Loyalty to the Lotus Sutra was more important than loyalty to country or secular authority. He was exiled twice by the government and some of his disciples were executed. He refused to compromise his principles and continued to challenge the established schools of Buddhism. During his second exile on Sado Island he wrote letters of encouragement to his disciples which later formed some of his most important works. In 1274, he was freed and the government cleared him of any wrongdoing. He died on October 13 1282, surrounded by his closest disciples.
BAHA'I
Overview of the Bahá'í faith.
The Bahá'í faith is one of the youngest of the world's major religions. It was founded by Baha'u'llah (pronounced buh-howluh) in Iran in the 19th century. The central idea of the faith is that of unity, and Bahá'ís seek to remove barriers of race, gender, and belief. They believe that people should work together for the common benefit of humanity.
Bahá'i House of Worship, New Delhi, India. Summary
Baha'i motif.
Baha'i inscription. Belief: The Bahá'í faith accepts the validity of all other religious faiths and traditions. Their main prophet, Baha'u'llah taught that God intervenes throughout human history at different times to reveal more of himself through his messengers (called Divine Messengers, or Manifestations of God). Bahá'ís recognize Zoroaster, the Buddha, Jesus Christ and the Prophet Muhammad as Manifestations of God, each providing appropriate guidance for their particular time and society. Baha'u'llah: Bahá'ís believe that Baha'u'llah is the most recent Manifestation of God. Baha'u'llah himself stated that he is not God's final messenger. The followers of Baha'u'llah were descended from the Babis - believers in the Bab who foretold the mission of Baha'u'llah. Customs Fasting: Bahá'ís practice fasting as a discipline for the soul; they see abstaining from food as an outer symbol of a spiritual fast. Becoming a member: Membership of the Bahá'í faith is open to all those who believe that Bahá‘u‘lláh is the latest Manifestation of God and who accept the Covenant Bahá‘u‘lláh made with His followers about His Successor and Interpreter, ‘Abdu‘l-Bahá, and the administrative institutions that govern the Bahá'í community. 19 day fest: Every nineteen days, the evening before the first day of each Bahá'í month, all of the Bahá'ís of a particular community meet at one of their houses, or the local Bahá'í centre for a Feast. Origins of Bahá'í History Geography: The Bahá'í faith was established in Iran, then called Persia, in the mid-nineteenth century. Iran was mainly a Muslim country, but there were also communities of Zoroastrians, Christians and Jews, all of whom made up the first adherents of the Bahá'í faith. Religious Context: The majority of Muslims in Persia at this time were Shi'a Muslims (as opposed to those of the Sunni tradition). Shi'a Muslims believe that it was the Prophet's intention that his descendants inherit the spiritual and temporal leadership of the Muslim faith and that these leaders be called 'Imams' (or leaders). They were believed to be infallible. The 12th Imam: However, the last Shi'a Imam - the 12th in line - had withdrawn into hiding in 873, hoping to avoid the fate of his predecessors. It is believed that he will appear again to bring in the end times. Muslims have called this promised deliverer the Mahdi (the guided one) and Qaim (He Who Will Arise). The Babs: Throughout his disappearance, the 12th Imam was believed to have communicated with the outside world through a series of deputies who took the title 'gate' - or Bab. There had been four Babs up to 941CE but the last Bab had died without naming a successor. It was widely believed that God would appoint a successor who would restore this channel of communication. The Shaykhi Tradition: In the late 18th century, a Shi'a Muslim, called Shaykh Ahmad al Ahsai set out in search of the 'Promised One' from Islamic scriptures. He founded a sect named Shaykhi and instructed his members to prepare for the coming of the Promised One of the Shi-ite tradition. It was from this tradition that the Bahá'í religion emerged in the mid-19th century.
ATHEISM Overview of Atheism Agnostics: Agnostics, in the popular sense, are people who have doubts about the existence of God. They don't believe that God exists, but they don't believe that God doesn't exist, either. There are probably over a billion people who don't believe in God, but don't go as far saying that they are certain that God doesn't exist. The strict meaning of Agnostic is not the same as this popular meaning. An agnostic in the original sense of the word is a person who thinks that we can't ever know about anything other than the material world, and therefore that the question as to whether God exists or not is one that can never be answered. Reasons for Non-Belief: People are non-believers for many reasons, among them:
Atheism as Opposition to Religion
Terminology
Atheism is not a religion, nor a specific philosophical system. However, some religions are substantially atheist in nature. Atheist philosophical systems are at least as intellectually adequate as religious belief systems. There are many atheist philosophical systems, but the only thing they have in common is non-belief in God(s). Weak atheists do not believe that God exists. They support their views by stating that:
Strong atheists go further. They believe that God does not exist. They either argue that
The word Atheism comes from a, meaning without, and theism meaning belief in god or gods. Atheists and Morality Reasons for being an Atheist Intellectual Reasons for Atheism The Lack of Evidence for the Existence of God: Many people are atheists because they think there is no evidence for God's existence - or at least no reliable evidence. They argue that a person should only believe in things for which they have good evidence. A philosopher might say that they start from the presumption of Atheism. They say that there is as much evidence for the existence of God (any particular god at all) as there is for the existence of unicorns. And although they might be more polite about it, someone who follows a particular faith may have the same sort of opinion about the existence of the gods of other faiths. Believers disagree with this in several ways: People accept many other things as true without insisting on good evidence. Good evidence may be difficult and complicated to understand and thus not appear to be good evidence. Many of the "truths" at the cutting edge of science are based on "evidence" only by a complicated chain of reasoning. Good evidence needn't provide certainty, it's sufficient for it to make something probable. And the atheists reply: But "people accept many things as true" without evidence on good, reliable authority, assuming that a trustworthy source has good evidence - but ultimately they require evidence. Good evidence may be complicated - but scientists etc can understand it and are good authorities. Theologians from the various religions are not such good authorities - disagreeing with each other even within the same religion. Probability is OK if it is the best you can get, but the evidence does not even begin to make God probable The presumption of Atheism: This is an argument about where to begin the discussion of whether or not God exists. It says that we should assume that God does not exist, and make it the duty of people who believe in God to to prove that God does exist. We should adopt the same policy that we do with people who insist the Loch Ness Monster exists:
The philosopher Anthony Flew who wrote an article on this said:
Humanism: "Humanism is an approach to life based on reason and our common humanity, recognizing that moral values are properly founded on human nature and experience alone." Robert Ashby. While atheism is merely the absence of belief, humanism is a positive attitude to the world, centered on human experience, thought, and hopes. The British Humanist Association and The International Humanist and Ethical Union use similar emblems showing a stylized human figure reaching out to achieve its full potential. Humanists believe that human experience and rational thinking provide the only source of both knowledge and a moral code to live by. They reject the idea of | |||||
Who
is a Jew? 
